RELIGION AND THEORIES

Sociologists are interested in studying religion for 2 primary reasons. One, because religion is very important to many people and these people cover a large percentage of the population on the planet. The second reason is because religious values and beliefs influence the behaviour and attitudes of people which makes an impact in their lives.

Religion- Religion is a set of beliefs and practices generally agreed by a group of people such as Christians and Muslims. These sets of beliefs often concern the cause, nature, the purpose of life and lastly may refer to a higher super natural power that makes sense of everything or God.

Substantive Religion- The substantive definition of religions focuses on what religion is. Therefore a simple definition for religion would be the belief in a superior power or God such as Christianity and Islam. The sociologist Max Weber defines religion as a belief in the superior or supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained.

(Max Weber)

Functional Definition- The functionalist definition of religions focuses on what religion does for society. So instead of defining it solely based on special kinds of beliefs, functionalist definitions define it in terms of the social and psychological functions it performs for individuals in societies. Thus the ideology here is that religion is the belief in society. The most basic need society requires is social order and religion reinforces this through value consensus to create a social solidarity. (Malinowski) (Religion= Belief + Rituals)

For example Emile Durkhiem defines religion in terms of the contribution it makes to social integration rather than the belief in God or the supernatural. Milton Yinger also goes to identify other important functions that religion performs for individuals such as answering ultimate questions such as the meaning of life and what happens after death. These functions performed helps create social stability in society as individuals can carry on their daily lives knowing their questions are answered.

(Emile Durkhiem) (Milton Yinger) (Mestrovic)(Malinowski)

Social Constructionist Definition- This interpretivist approach focuses on how the individual or members of society themselves define religion. This means there is no universal definition of religion to cover all cases because in reality different groups and individuals mean very different things by religion. Therefore interpretivists are more interested in how these definitions of religions are constructed, challenged and fought over.

A good example is how Alan Aldridge shows us in his studies how scientology for its followers is a religion. However many governments denied its legal status as a religion and sought to ban it. This shows that religions can be contested and can be influenced by the power to define the situation which can be by any group or an individual.

The interpretivist approach therefore suggests that religion is impossible to generalise and varies from person to person, from group to group as everyone individually perceives it differently. Thus religion doesn’t have to perform similar functions for everyone or involve a belief in a supernatural power or God.

(Alan Aldridge)

Civil Religion- A functionalist alternative, this is the belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself. Robert Bellah argues that civil religion integrates society in a way that individual religions cannot. For example American Civil Religion involves loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in God. They have to also engage in certain rituals and practices. Therefore through value consensus, individuals see that to be a true American, you have to believe in God and engage in the rituals set such as pledging allegiance to the national flag and singing the national anthem. (Bellah)

Functionalist Approach to Religion

Malinowski- The anthropologist agree’s with Durkhiem’s view to religion promoting social solidarity in society. Malinowski describes how religion performs psychological functions for individuals that helps them to cope with emotional stress that would undermine society. This occurs when:

1. Where the outcome is important but uncontrollable. His study of Trobiand Islanders reveals that when they did fishing in the ocean, they performed “canoe magic”. This ritual helped them psychologically overcome fear and feel in control of the unforeseen natural events.

2. At times of life crises such as birth, puberty, marriage and death. Religion helps to minimise the psychological disruption for the people in society. For example, funeral rituals reinforce a feeling of solidarity among the survivors giving comfort to the bereaved. Malinowski argues that death is in fact the main reason for religion.

Talcott Parsons- He is a sociologist that sees religion as helping people to cope with the uncontrollable outcomes and unforeseen events that occur in society such as losing a loved one. He identifies 2 functions religion performs for society.

· It creates and legitimates society’s central values.

· It’s the primary source of meaning.

For example religion legitimates basic norms and values in society by making them sacred to society’s members. In such societies like USA, it has sacralised American values such as individualism, meritocracy and self discipline which serve to promote value consensus and social stability. Religion also provides a source of meaning to answering ultimate questions such as why people are suffering like when people are murdered or die young. Some of the answers it gives are that it is a test of faith and those that follow the rules will be rewarded in heaven.

Emile Durkhiem- Durkhiem’s view to religion is that it is also the origin of human thought and our reason to think conceptually. It performs cognitive functions because In order to think at all we need categories such as time, space, substance and number which he portrays in his book Primitive Classification. For example it is impossible to think of an event that occurred outside time and space. In order to share thoughts with others, we use the same categories and ideals such as a creator or God bringing the world into existence at the beginning of time.

Durkhiem also claimed the essence of religion could be found by studying it in its simplest form. That by doing studies on Arunta, an Australian clan society he could understand the essence of religion. Arunta clans performed rituals involving the worship to a sacred totem which is the clan’s emblem. This emblem therefore symbolizes the clan, its origin and its identity. Thus when the clan is worshipping the totems, they are in reality worshipping society itself. (Durkheim)

Even so, his views have been criticised by postmodernists like Mestrovic who point out that his study only really applies to small scale societies which are not as complex as large ones. Also, postmodernist theorists like Grace Davie would argue about a trend towards vicarious religion. She agrees that people don’t attend religious institutions as much but they still believe in God so only the obligation to attend has declined due to changes in society. (Mestrovic) (Davie)

Milton Yinger- Milton Yinger is a functionalist who saw religion as a way to answer ultimate questions for people in society. Such questions are about what the meaning of life is and what occurs after death. This is because many people in societies will need answers and will not be able to contribute properly to it as it would cause disruption unless they are answered. Therefore society won’t be functioning properly without it as it stabilizes psychological thoughts.

Marxist Approach to Religion

Marxist views on religion are based on class conflict. They see religion as an instrument that divides society into two classes, the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat. The Bourgeoisie own the means of production exploiting the labour of the Proletariat for their own profits in modern capitalist society. Karl Marx identifies how religion is used as a tool to blind the Proletariat from the truth through the ideological processes it performs for society.

Marx also saw religion like opium used to dull the pain of exploitation because religion is a product of alienation. Alienation involves loss of control over something that one has produced. The working class don’t have the means of production in society so they cannot express themselves fully as creative beings.

Similarily Lenin describes how religion is an intoxicant doled out to the masses by the ruling class in order to confuse them and keep them in their place. Therefore the ruling class are manipulating the masses so their ruling power can’t be overthrown.

An example of religion being a way of controlling the masses is that it legitimates power given to those in the ruling class such as Kings. For example during the 16^th century, there was an ideology created of a King being God’s representative on earth which inflicted total obedience to the people. Thus, being disobedient to such a man would not only be illegal but a sinful challenge to God’s authority.

Feminist Views of Religion

Feminists see religion as institutions serving the purpose of keep society patriarchal through the ideology it invokes to its followers. For example:

· Women are segregated in places of worship. They are placed in non-important locations of some religious institutions therefore showing how devalued they are in contemporary religions. (Jean Holm)

· Religious organisations are mainly male dominated despite the fact women may often participate more in them. For example Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women to become Priests. Armstrong sees how women’s exclusion from priesthood is evidence of marginalisation. Also in many Christian religions, women were forbidden to become priests until recently in 1992.

· It is found that Sacred Texts largely feature male Gods and prophets such as Muhammad from Islam or Moses from the Christianity religions. The texts also have stories that are anti-female stereotyped such as Eve in the Christianity religion being the cause of humanity’s fall from Eden.

· Religious laws and customs give women fewer rights than men such as how many spouses they can marry, dress codes and decision making choices. In some Muslim religions, women have to cover up their body completely. Such customs are likely to benefit men who can marry more than one wife in some religions and make decisions that women must obey. (Woodhead)

Woodhead- She found how religious laws and customs give women fewer rights than men. For example, some males can marry more than 1 partner. Women are also given less power in decision making and have strict dress codes. In some Muslim religions, many women have to cover up their body completely.

Jean Holm- She did studies to find that women are segregated at places of worship. They are placed in non-important locations of these institutions therefore showing the devaluation of them in contemporary religion. (Limits on female participitation)

Armstrong- She sees how organisations are male dominated. This is because such religions like Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women to become priests. Therefore this shows evidence of marginalisation.

El Saadawi- The sociologist explained the theory of how patriarchal society creates patriarchal religion. Patriarchy influenced and re-shaped religious ideas since the last few 100 years. The sociologist argues that religion is not the direct cause of women’s subordination. Men for instance reinterpreted religious beliefs in a way that favoured patriarchy.

Postmodernist Views to Religion

Many sociologists reject the secularisation thesis of religion declining in modern society. Instead, they examine and explain that religion is rather changing instead of declining. This is because changes in religion are the result of changes in society such as greater individualism, consumerism and a shift from modern to post-modern society.

Davie- Grace Davie argued against secularisation. She believed that religion is not declining but simply taking a more privatised form. People no longer attend church because they feel they have to or that it is respectful to do so. She accepts that church attendance has declined but it is a matter of personal choice rather than the obligation it use to be.

She notes a trend towards vicarious religion where a small number of professional clergy practice religion on behalf of the rest of society. This pattern is typical in Britain and Northern Europe. For example, even though there are low levels of attendance, there are still a large proportion of people using churches for rites of passage- which are rituals that mark a change of status such as weddings, baptisms and funerals.

Another example is Bibby’s Canadian survey which found that only 25% of them attended church on a regular basis. However 80% agreed that they had religious beliefs.

(Davie) (Bibby) (Canadian Survey)

Davie is however criticized by Voas and Crocket who argue that there isn’t more believing than belonging. British Social Attitude Survey’s from 1983-2000 show that both church attendance and a belief in God are declining. (Voas and Crocket)

Leger- She pointed out how in our postmodern society, we are spiritually shopping. This means we are consumers of religion where we pick and mix our own hybrid versions of reality possibly from many different religions. This is also caused by cultural amnesia and we are able to construct our own spiritual identity or metanarrative of the world.

Lyotard- He explained how the death of metanarratives has occurred in post-modern society. This means that people don’t believe everything they are thought from religions who claim to be able to explain everything. Instead they take pieces from many diverse religions and institutions to form their own beliefs.

Calvinist Approach to Religion

Calvinism is a form of Protestantism founded by John Calvin in the 16^th Century. This was during the reformation of prostestantism helping to bring out a major social change. Max Weber notes that before societies had capitalism in the sense of greed and wealth, it was often spent on luxury consumption. However it is now based on systematic, efficient, rational pursuit of profit for its own sake rather than for consumption. Weber calls this the spirit of capitalism.

Conservative Functions of Religion

Religion is also seen as a conservative force that reinforces traditional beliefs of how society should be. Therefore it functions to preserve things as they are and maintain status quo. Functionalists, conservatives and New Right favour the conservative functions to religion.

However Marxists like Engels see religion as a conservative ideology that prevents social change. That it is only there to legitimate class inequality through false class consciousness which prevents society’s evolution.

RELIGION TERMS

Substantive Definition- This refers to and is concerned with what religion is. Thus, the belief in the supernatural or God. (Weber)

Functional Definition- Concerned with what religion does such as the psychological and social contribution it makes to society. (Durkheim) (Yinger)

Sacred- These are things that are set apart and forbidden inspiring feelings of awe, wonder and surrounded by taboos. (Durkheim)

Profane- These are things that have no special significance because they are ordinary and mundane. (Durkheim)

Totenism- Worshipping a clan’s emblem which represents the clan’s origins and identity. One Durkheim’s study of an Australian Clan society, the Arunta on Totenism he believes when they are worshipping the Totem they are in fact worshipping society itself. (Durkheim)

Collective Conscience- The shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that makes social life possible between individuals in society. (Durkheim)

Cognitive Functions- The shared ideology of operations and thought performed in society to keep it stable.

Life Crises- When there is psychological distress among people due to different situations in life stage? Religion helps people to overcome it otherwise it would undermine society. (Malinowski) (Parsons)

Civil Religion- This is a functionalist alternative that integrates society in a way other religions cannot due to attaching sacred values to religion and society. To be true members, people have to practice to be members of society such as performing rituals like pledging allegiance to the Sacred Flag. (Bella)

Ideology- This is a set of ideas used as a way of inflicting false class consciousness to the working class. They are sets of ideas past down onto society’s members. (Marx)

False Class Consciousness- This is a distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from acting to change their situation. (Marx)

Alienation- The loss of control over something. Marx explains that working class have lost control over the means of production so they cannot express themselves as creative beings. Thus they turn to religion due to the promises of rewards. (Marx)

Spiritual Gin- Refers to the way Lenin describes how religion is used as an intoxicant doled out to the masses to keep the working class confused and in their place. (Lenin)

Opium of the Masses- Refers to how religion acts as a way of dulling the pain of exploitation to the masses. (Marx)

Patriarchy- Meaning male dominated. Feminists argue religion is used as a way of reinforcing male domination through ideological means that take place in religious organisations and institutions. (Armstrong) (Woodhead) (Jean Holm)

Religious Feminism- Woodhead explains that women may conform to religion for their own benefit. For example some Muslim women wear hijabs that may symbolise resistance to oppression. They choose to do so to show they are either proud of their religion and to escape the confinements of the home.

Conservative Force- This acts as a way of preserving traditional behaviour and beliefs in society.

Radical Force – This is pulling out the stops to support the movement away from traditional beliefs. For example some believe feminists are quite radical.

Radical Conservative Force- This is pulling out all the stops to preserve traditional beliefs, customs and behaviour. Not willing to accept or be tolerant of some other ideals. (Moral Majority, Bruce)

Protestant Ethic- This is based upon the notion that Calvinists have an emphasis on hard work as a component of a person’s lifestyle. (Weber)

Calvinism- This is a form of Protestantism that occurred during its reformation in the 16^th century to bring about a major social change. Instead of Capitalism being used for greed and wealth, Calvinism brought out an efficient, systematic and rational pursuit of profit for its own sake rather than for consumption. Weber refers this as the spirit of capitalism. He explains Calvinism wasn’t the main cause of modern capitalism but only one of its main causes. (Weber)

Predestination- Calvinists believe God has predetermined which souls would be saved referred to as the elect. Could cause a salvation panic due to people not knowing if they would be chosen to be saved as the can’t change it. (Weber)

Asceticism- This refers to self discipline and self denial which Calvinists practiced. For example monks would refrain from luxury, expensive clothes and avoid excess to devote themselves to God. (Weber)

Calling- The idea that people are put on earth to glorify God’s name through wok. Thus Calvinists practice hard work and long hours of it. For example, as Ben Franklin puts it “idleness is a sin”. (Weber)

Hinduism- Weber explains this as an ascetic religion that directed its followers concerns from the material world and towards to spiritual world. (Weber)

Confucianism- Weber explains this as a philosophical and ethical system that lacked the drive Calvinism had because it was not ascetic. (Weber)

Bible Belt- These are sections in the US where Protestant Fundamentalism is widely practiced. This occurs especially in the South and Midwest.

Moral Majority- These are a right wing pressure group supporting the New Christian Right who want to take America back to God. They are against homosexuality, divorce and abortion. They were never the majority, only 15% of the population at most. (Bruce)

Principle of Hope- Blotch explains how religion is like a dual character because it can have positive and negative influences on social change. Thus on the positive side for the oppressed it can inspire protest and rebellion. To do this, it often gives charismatic leaders images of a utopia. (Ernest Blotch)

Liberation Theology- A movement that emerged within the Catholic Church in Latin America during the 1960’s. Casanova emphasises its important role in social change. It had a strong commitment to the poor opposing military dictatorships. Priests often took the side of the oppressed acting as authority figures when murder squads came. However, in 1980’s Pope John Paul II condemned liberation theology on the basis that it resembled Marxism. (Casanova)

Millenarian Movements- These are movements that believe the world would be changed in the day of judgement. Such transformation is expected to be through supernatural means that would fix oppression and create a utopian world. (Worsley)

Hegemony- A term Gramsci refers to as dominated by the ruling class who have control over society’s ideological functions. (Gramsci)

Secularisation- This is the decline in religion, thus the process of beliefs and practices losing their significance. For example, Civil Partnership Act. Crocket’s census estimates that over 40% of the adult population attended Church on a Sunday in 1851. However attendances have fallen by far today. (Crocket)

Religiosity- This is a comprehensive social term used to refer to the numerous aspects of religious activity, dedication and beliefs.

Rationalisation- This is when actions become based on efficiency and calculation rather than from the motivations derived from morality, emotion, custom or religion.

Disenchantment- The process of whereby magical and religious ways of thought are replaced by rational mode of thought.

Structural Differentiation- This refers to the separate institutions carrying out functions that were once performed by single institutions in society. (Parsons)

Cultural Defence- This is when religion provides a focal point for the defence of national, ethical or local group identity in a struggle against external factors. (Bruce)

Cultural Transition- This is when religion provides support and a sense of community for ethnic groups such as migrants moving to a different country entering a different culture. (Bruce) (Herzberg’s USA Study)

Spiritual Revolution- Postmodern society has caused a revolution where traditional religion is giving away to many new types of forms. Many are New Age Beliefs emphasizing self development.

Holistic Milieu- Refers to people who seek self spirituality and take part in New Age Movements unlike the congregational domain. (Heelas and Woodhead)

Secularisation from Within- This is the ideology that religion becomes psychologised or turned into a form of therapy. Now, purpose of religion is for personal improvement in the world. (Bruce)

Believing Without Belonging- This is agreeing to religious beliefs, origins and ways but not attending religious institutions. Reginald Bibby’s Canadian Survey explains that 80% of Canadians state they have religious beliefs but only 25% actually attending Church on a regular basis, (Davie) (Reginald Bibby)

Vicarious Religion- Grace Davie explains that a small number of professional clergy practice religion on behalf of wider society when there is low attendance in religious institutions. (Davie)

Spiritual Shopping- Due to cultural amnesia, we are now customers to religion due to greater consumerism in society. We now use religion when we pay for rites of passage. (Leger)

Metanarratives- This is the idea that we form pieces of our own reality taken from different parts of society forming our own theory of the world. (Lyotard)

Cultural Amnesia- This is the loss of collective memory passed down from generation to generation. This postmodern generation has lost traditional religion because parents don’t teach their children about it. (Leger)

Religious Consumerism- Where people become spiritual shoppers. Religion becomes individualised and we use it for marriage, baptism and rites of passage spending a lot of money for such things. (Leger)

Re-enchantment- This is the growth of unconventional beliefs, practices and spirituality criticizing the secularisation theory. (Lyon)

Religious Market Theory- This is the Eurocentric focus on the decline in religion where people have become more customers to religion using it for rites of passage. (Stark and Bainbridge)

Supply Led Religion- Explains that religious demand is based on offer and to the extent to which people respond to their needs which is likely to be related to such offers. (Stark and Bainbridge)

Existential Security- This is a term referring to religion being more important in societies that are less stable and secure. Norris and Ingleheart claim that religious belief is stronger and more traditional in poorer societies. (Norris and Ingleheart)

Hindu Ultra-Nationalism- Based on the consensus that people in India believe they have the most superior culture due to their main national religion of Hinduism. (Nanda)

Pentecostalism- A global religion that achieved it’s mainstream due to being able to plug into and incorporate local beliefs. It uses symbolism drawn from local cultures and existing beliefs. For example, they attack cults claiming they are working for the devil and exorcisms need to be performed on these cults to help them. (Lehmann)

Fundamentalism- This refers to the belief that we need to return to a time when religion was more important and gave moral solutions to problems. (Gidden’s)

Cosmopolitanism- This refers to embracing modernity. It’s tolerant of other views of others open to new ideas and constantly reflecting and modifying beliefs over time, keeping them up to date. (Gidden’s)

Monotheism- This refers to when a religion has only 1 God. Examples are Christianity, Islam and Judaism. (Bruce)

Polytheistic- This term refers to when a religion can have more than 1 God. An example would be Hinduism. (Bruce)

Clash of Civilisations- This theory suggests that religion and different cultures is the major cause of conflict between different nations. For example, 9/11 attacks in 2001. (Huntington)

Church- In Troelch’s definition of types of religion organisations, this refers to large organisations with a bureaucratic hierarchy claiming a monopoly of the truth. Churches are inclusive having millions of members. They believe they are the true religion but are relatively tolerant of other beliefs. (Troelsch)

Sects- These are smaller exclusive groups that are hostile to wider society. They expect a high level of commitment and tend to be led by a charismatic leader. Members tend to be drawn from the poor, oppressed and those dis-privileged in society. (Troelsch)

Denomination- These are religious organisations that are half way between churches and sects but membership is less exclusive. They impose some minor restrictions such as no alcohol. (Niebuhr)

Cult- The least organised religious organisation that sees its members more like trainees or customers. They are led by practitioners or therapists who claim special knowledge. (Niebuhr)

New Religious Movements- These are recent religious groups that have arisen with their own beliefs. Wallis explains there are 3 types of NRM’s, World Accommodating, World Rejecting and World Affirming. Since the 1960’s, there have been over 800 New Religious Movements and over half a million members. (Wallis)

World Rejecting- These new religious movements reject the world and seek radical change. They often have more conservative moral codes and are likely to live in communities together which can resort to brainwashing. (Wallis)

World Accommodating- These are breakaways from mainstream religions and they neither accept nor reject the world. They seek to restore the spiritual purity of religion such as Neo Pentecostalism.

World Affirming- These organisations accept the world seeking to improve it. Most of them are cults which grant their followers access to supernatural powers.

Marginality- Lacking some of the traits in society due to dis-privillege. (Weber)

Relative Deprivation- The subjective sense of being deprived so people who are in fact privileged can feel dis-privileged such as the middle class who may be feel spirituality deprived so they turn to sects for a sense of community. (Wallis) (Weber)

Sectarian Cycle- This is Stark and Stanbridge’s concept believing sects have a cycle which will eventually lead to them disbanding. 1st stage is Schism due to conflict between the privileged and dis-privileged, 2nd stage is initial fervour where a charismatic leader will rise up, 3^rd stage is Denominationalism where the Protestant Ethic effect kicks in and initial fervour begins to fade, 4^th stage establishment where sects become more world-accepting and 5^th stage is further schism where members leave and find other sects. (Stark and Stanbridge.)

Established Sects- These are sects that manage to keep their institutions stable in terms of participation, attendance and their commitments to the faith. Wilson distinguishes between 2 types of established sects, Conversionists and Adventists. (Wilson)

New Age Movements- These are movements that cover a range of beliefs focusing on self spirituality that have become widespread since the 1980’s. They are extremely diverse including the belief in UFO’s, Astrology, Yoga and Meditation. (Wilson)

Open Belief Systems- These beliefs are open to scrutiny, criticism and can be verified through constant re-testing. An example would be science which is open to falsification. (Popper)

Closed Belief Systems- These beliefs are not open to criticism. Unlike science, they make claims that cannot be successfully overturned. Fundamentalist beliefs often have get out phrases when they are threatened. (Horton)

Verificationism- The opposite of falsificationism where theorists set out to find evidence that would prove a theory or support an existing theory. (Popper)

Falsificationism- The opposite of verificationism where theorists set out to find anomalies or evidence that would otherwise prove their theory wrong. Popper refers to this as the fallacy of induction. (Popper)

CUDOS Norms- Science thrives as a major social institution due to receiving support from other major institutions and values. This occurred during the Protestant Reformation in the 16^th century as science became an important factor for society. Today thanks to science, there have been a lot of technological advances that have changed society’s functions. Merton identifies 4 CUDOS norms: (Merton)

<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Communism- That scientific knowledge is not private property and must be shared with everyone otherwise knowledge cannot grow.

<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Universalism- The truth or falsity of scientific knowledge then becomes judged by universal and objective criteria such as testing.

<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Disinterestedness- This means being committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake. Scientists have to publish their findings making it difficult to practice fraud.

Self Sustaining Beliefs- These are belief systems that have 3 devices that keep it sustained when there is contradictory evidence.

<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Circularity- Idea explained in terms from another idea.

<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Subsidiary Explanations- If something is found false, the religious institutions work around the answer to the problem.

<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Denials of legitimacy to Rivals- They reject other views and belief systems by refusing to grant any legitimisations to their basic assumptions. (E.g creationism completely rejects the idea of evolutionism.)

Utopia- The idea of the perfect world. (Blotch)

Dual Character- Religion has positive and negative influences on social change. On the positive side for the working class it can inspire protest and rebellion after charismatic leaders are given images of a utopia seeing what needs to be changed. (Blotch)

Free- Floating Intelligentsia- This is the detachment of intellectuals from social groups which would mean that a fair society would occur because intellectuals represent strong interests in particular groups. (Mannheim)

Magic- This is control over the supernatural or it can involve illusions or tricks.

Supernatural- Something beyond nature which cannot be scientifically explained or explained by the laws of nature.

Ritual- These are physical, mental or social practices of religion such as singing, praying and meditation.

Modernity- This began with the industrial revolution where there was a rapid social change. Although society remains fairly predictable, technological advancement, secularisation and a decline in tradition has occurred.

Postmodernity- Society has moved into a late modern stage where culture is now fragmented, diverse, and unstable and ever changing. (Davie) (Leger) (Lyotard)

Charismatic Leader – This is a person who organises a religious movement giving its members inspiration and representing their ideals. (Troelsch) (Wallis)

Theodicy of Disprivilege- Max Weber’s term that religious explanations state that marginality is justified. For example, it could be as a test of faith by religion. Sects offer a sense of community to those who are disprivileged making them more attractive to the oppressed who can understand those facing the same hardships. (Weber)

Ecumenicalism- Of or related to worldwide Christian Church concerned with establishing or promoting unity among different churches or religions.

Televangelism- This is trying to convert people to a faith or religion through television. (Hadden and Shupe)

Theocracy- This is when a state is dominated by religious doctrine influencing the laws and social policies.

Social Construction- A term referring to created or made by society.

Terms Regarding Science

Paradigm- This is a set of norms or kind of culture that tells the scientists how to think and behave. They accept the paradigm uncritically as a result of socialisation. Conforming to the paradigm would resort to publication of research and career success. Paradigms are also incommensurable. (Kuhn)

Anomaly- This is something or evidence that would prove an existing theory wrong or not support its correction. (Kuhn)

Normal Science- This refers to the engagement in puzzle solving. The paradigm defines the questions and in sometimes broad terms the answer. Scientists have to fill in their work in detail to work out the closest solution rather like completing a jigsaw puzzle. (Kuhn)

Paradigm Shift- Refers to when too many anomalies are found in the theory, (too much evidence that disproves the theory) it may change slightly or to another new theory.

Pre-paradigmatic- Kuhn’s definition and argument that refers to sociology being too divided into competing perspectives or schools of thought that prevents it from being a science.

Causation- This is when one factor or thing causes another.

Correlation- This is when 2 things happen at the same time.

Verificationism- The opposite of falsificationism where theorists set out to find evidence that would prove a theory or support an existing theory.

Falsificationism- The opposite of verificationism where theorists set out to find anomalies or evidence that would otherwise prove their theory wrong. Popper refers to this as the “fallacy of induction.”(Popper)