SCIENCE AND IDEOLOGY

(Open Belief Systems) Popper- Karl Popper a philosophical scientist explains that what makes science unique is that it is an open belief system open to scrutiny, criticism and testing by others.

Science is also governed by the principle of falsificationism, thus scientists set out to try and falsify and prove existing theories wrong. He refers to this as fallacy of induction. To illustrate, he uses an example of a large number of swans being observed in his studies. We might make a generalisation that all swans are white but a single observation of a black swan would destroy this theory.

(CUDOS Norms) Merton – Merton explains that science thrives as a major social institution because it has 4 norms that govern it. These norms make scientists behave in a certain way to serve the goal of increasing scientific knowledge. The term CUDOS is short for the initial letters:

· Communism- Where scientific knowledge is not private property. It must be shared with the scientific community by publishing their findings otherwise science won’t grow.

· Universalism- When the truth or falsity of scientific knowledge is judged by universal objective criteria such as testing and not chosen by scientists who produce it.

· Disinterestedness- When it is difficult to discover knowledge for its own sake as findings need to be published making it harder for scientists to practice fraud.

· Organised Scepticism- When knowledge is open to questioning and objective criticism because no knowledge claim is sacred.

(Belief Systems) Horton – Horton distinguishes between open and closed belief systems. He explains that science is an open belief system because it’s open to criticism and can be disproved by testing. However most other belief systems like fundamentalist religions are closed belief systems. This is because knowledge claims are made that cannot be overturned. Because when they are threatened, they often use get out clauses to get around the problem.

(Witchcraft) Pritchard – Pritchard explains that like westerners, a social group known as the Azande believe natural events have natural causes. However, unlike most westerners the Azande don’t believe in coincidence or chance. For example a westerner would believe snake bit a person because they were walking on the grass and probably accidentally stepped on it. However the Azande would believe that this is due to witchcraft because a jealous neighbour cast a spell on them so misfortune would happen. This can resort to accusations being made against a suspected subject and can be resolved by the prince of the tribe informing members to perform rituals that resolve the problem. Pritchard argues that this belief system performs useful social functions that clear the air from disruption. Thus, it is an example of a closed belief system because it is highly resistant to challenges.

(Self Sustaining Belief Systems) Polanyi– Polanyi explains that belief systems have 3 main devices that help them sustain themselves when there is contradictory evidence:

· Circularity- The fact that each idea is explain in terms of another idea within the belief system.

· Subsidiary Explanations- When something is proven false like an oracle that fails there is always some sort of explanation rather than the falsity of the belief itself.

· Denial of Legitimacy to Rivals- Belief systems tend to reject worldviews because they refuse to grant legitimacy to some of their assumptions. (E.g. creationism completely rejects evolutionism.)

(Scientific Paradigms) Kuhn– Thomas Kuhn explains that science can be like a closed system. This is because it is based on a set of shared assumptions called the paradigm. The paradigm tells scientists what reality is really like, what methods to use in research and what counts as evidence that supports their answers. Challenging the paradigm can lead to ridicule or out of the profession. For example, Veliskovsky came up with a new theory that challenged some of the most fundamental studies of science in which he was ridiculed.

When scientists conform to the paradigm, they are puzzle-solving. Thus, those that do so are rewarded with published works and professorship.

(Little Green Men) Woolgar– He found that scientists discover what their evidence means before they can apply to theories or explanations. Thus, they have to persuade others to accept their information. For example, during the case of the discovery of “Pulsar”. This was where researchers at Cambridge where able to find patterns shown in printouts from a telescope. However, not being successful to the science community led to the signals being later figured as a type of star known as hitherto unknown to science. Woolgar argues that scientific fact is a social construction not necessarily a real thing out there.

(End of Metanarratives) Lyotard– Lyotard explains that science falsely claims to offer truth about how the world works. To contrast, he explains there are a number of metanarratives within sociology which claim to possess truth about how the world works. Examples of metanarratives include functionalism, Marxism, Religion. To Lyotard, science is just another discourse and way of thinking used to dominate people.

(Hegemony as Belief System) Gramsci– Gramsci found that people subconsciously accept ruling class ideas because they believe its how things are meant to be or work. These ideas are promoted in science and religion to keep the working class oppressed. Thus, hegemony becomes like a sort of belief system.

(Free-Floating Intelligentsia) Mannheim– Mannheim describes that belief systems are partial one sided views occurring because intellectuals attach themselves to particular classes or social groups that represent their particular interests not society as a whole. To Mannheim, removing intellectuals from society would remove the source of conflicting interests and create and equal society. Mannheim distinguishes between 2 types of belief systems or world views intellectuals attach themselves to.

· Ideological Thought- Justifying things the way they are to maintain status quo reflecting interests of capitalist class.

· Utopian Thought- Justifies social change reflecting the interests of the underprivileged offering a vision of how society could be organised differently.

(Feminist Ideology) Marks– Marks explains that ideologies from science justify inequality. He found that in the 19^th century doctors, scientists and educationalists use to express view that educating females would disqualify them from the vocation in the home and nurturing of the next generation. Thus science is used to make people believe that higher education for women would render them unable to suckle infants.

WHAT TO REMEMBER

· KARL POPPER- Science an open belief system governed by principle of falsificationism. White and Black Swans.(Fallacy of Induction)

· MERTION CUDOS Norms- Science thrives as a major social institution because it has 4 norms that govern it. Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, Organised Scepticism.

· HORTON- Science is an open belief system because it’s open to criticism and can be disproved by testing. However, fundamentalist religions are open belief systems because knowledge claims are made that can’t be overturned. (Get out clauses) (Close and Open Belief Systems)

· PRITCHARD- Witchcraft among Azande, not believes in coincidence, jealous neighbour, snake biting, Prince, Performs social functions that clear the air.

· POLYANI (SELF SUSTAINING BELIEFS) - Belief systems have 3 main devices that help them sustain themselves where there is contradictory evidence. Circularity, Subsidiary Explanations, Denial of legitimacy to Rivals. (Creationism rejects evolutionism.

· THOMAS KUHN- Scientific Paradigms explain science can be like a close system. Based on a set of shared assumptions called paradigm. Paradigm tells scientists how to behave, methods to use and what counts as evidence. Those that conform to it are rewarded. (Veliskovsky) (Normal Science- Puzzle Solving)

· WOOLGAR- Argues scientific fact is a social construction, not necessarily a real thing. Because need to discover what evidence means. (Study of Pulsar patterns (telescope), Hithero.)

· LYOTARD- Death of Metanarratives, Science falsely claims truth about how world works. E.g. Religion is also a metanarrative claiming to possess truth about world. Thus science is just another discourse and way of thinking.

· GRAMSCI- Hegemony is like a belief system. People accept and believe in dominant ideas in society promoted by ruling class in science and religion to keep w/c oppressed. (Neo Marxist)

· MANNHIEM- Free floating Intelligentsia. Belief systems partially one sided because intellectuals attach themselves to particular social group or classes. They represent particular interests of these groups not society as a whole. 2 types of worldview, Utopian thought- for social change. Ideological Thought- To preserve. (Neo Marxist)

MARKS- Feminist Ideology. Explain Ideologies from science justify inequality and patriarchy. 19^th century, doctors, scientists and educationalists use to express that educating females would disqualify them from the vocation in how and of nurturing next generation. Higher education would unable suckling infants.