Substantive Definition- This refers to and is concerned with what religion is. Thus, the belief in the supernatural or God. (Weber)
Functional Definition- Concerned with what religion does such as the psychological and social contribution it makes to society. (Durkheim) (Yinger)
Sacred- These are things that are set apart and forbidden inspiring feelings of awe, wonder and surrounded by taboos. (Durkheim)
Profane- These are things that have no special significance because they are ordinary and mundane. (Durkheim)
Totenism- Worshipping a clan’s emblem which represents the clan’s origins and identity. One Durkheim’s study of an Australian Clan society, the Arunta on Totenism he believes when they are worshipping the Totem they are in fact worshipping society itself. (Durkheim)
Collective Conscience- The shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that makes social life possible between individuals in society. (Durkheim)
Cognitive Functions- The shared ideology of operations and thought performed in society to keep it stable.
Life Crises- When there is psychological distress among people due to different situations in life stage? Religion helps people to overcome it otherwise it would undermine society. (Malinowski) (Parsons)
Civil Religion- This is a functionalist alternative that integrates society in a way other religions cannot due to attaching sacred values to religion and society. To be true members, people have to practice to be members of society such as performing rituals like pledging allegiance to the Sacred Flag. (Bella)
Ideology- This is a set of ideas used as a way of inflicting false class consciousness to the working class. They are sets of ideas past down onto society’s members. (Marx)
False Class Consciousness- This is a distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from acting to change their situation. (Marx)
Alienation- The loss of control over something. Marx explains that working class have lost control over the means of production so they cannot express themselves as creative beings. Thus they turn to religion due to the promises of rewards. (Marx)
Spiritual Gin- Refers to the way Lenin describes how religion is used as an intoxicant doled out to the masses to keep the working class confused and in their place. (Lenin)
Opium of the Masses- Refers to how religion acts as a way of dulling the pain of exploitation to the masses. (Marx)
Patriarchy- Meaning male dominated. Feminists argue religion is used as a way of reinforcing male domination through ideological means that take place in religious organisations and institutions. (Armstrong) (Woodhead) (Jean Holm)
Religious Feminism- Woodhead explains that women may conform to religion for their own benefit. For example some Muslim women wear hijabs that may symbolise resistance to oppression. They choose to do so to show they are either proud of their religion and to escape the confinements of the home.
Conservative Force- This acts as a way of preserving traditional behaviour and beliefs in society.
Radical Force – This is pulling out the stops to support the movement away from traditional beliefs. For example some believe feminists are quite radical.
Radical Conservative Force- This is pulling out all the stops to preserve traditional beliefs, customs and behaviour. Not willing to accept or be tolerant of some other ideals. (Moral Majority, Bruce)
Protestant Ethic- This is based upon the notion that Calvinists have an emphasis on hard work as a component of a person’s lifestyle. (Weber)
Calvinism- This is a form of Protestantism that occurred during its reformation in the 16th century to bring about a major social change. Instead of Capitalism being used for greed and wealth, Calvinism brought out an efficient, systematic and rational pursuit of profit for its own sake rather than for consumption. Weber refers this as the spirit of capitalism. He explains Calvinism wasn’t the main cause of modern capitalism but only one of its main causes. (Weber)
Predestination- Calvinists believe God has predetermined which souls would be saved referred to as the elect. Could cause a salvation panic due to people not knowing if they would be chosen to be saved as the can’t change it. (Weber)
Asceticism- This refers to self discipline and self denial which Calvinists practiced. For example monks would refrain from luxury, expensive clothes and avoid excess to devote themselves to God. (Weber)
Calling- The idea that people are put on earth to glorify God’s name through wok. Thus Calvinists practice hard work and long hours of it. For example, as Ben Franklin puts it “idleness is a sin”. (Weber)
Hinduism- Weber explains this as an ascetic religion that directed its followers concerns from the material world and towards to spiritual world. (Weber)
Confucianism- Weber explains this as a philosophical and ethical system that lacked the drive Calvinism had because it was not ascetic. (Weber)
Bible Belt- These are sections in the US where Protestant Fundamentalism is widely practiced. This occurs especially in the South and Midwest.
Moral Majority- These are a right wing pressure group supporting the New Christian Right who want to take America back to God. They are against homosexuality, divorce and abortion. They were never the majority, only 15% of the population at most. (Bruce)
Principle of Hope- Blotch explains how religion is like a dual character because it can have positive and negative influences on social change. Thus on the positive side for the oppressed it can inspire protest and rebellion. To do this, it often gives charismatic leaders images of a utopia. (Ernest Blotch)
Liberation Theology- A movement that emerged within the Catholic Church in Latin America during the 1960’s. Casanova emphasises its important role in social change. It had a strong commitment to the poor opposing military dictatorships. Priests often took the side of the oppressed acting as authority figures when murder squads came. However, in 1980’s Pope John Paul II condemned liberation theology on the basis that it resembled Marxism. (Casanova)
Millenarian Movements- These are movements that believe the world would be changed in the day of judgement. Such transformation is expected to be through supernatural means that would fix oppression and create a utopian world. (Worsley)
Hegemony- A term Gramsci refers to as dominated by the ruling class who have control over society’s ideological functions. (Gramsci)
Secularisation- This is the decline in religion, thus the process of beliefs and practices losing their significance. For example, Civil Partnership Act. Crocket’s census estimates that over 40% of the adult population attended Church on a Sunday in 1851. However attendances have fallen by far today. (Crocket)
Religiosity- This is a comprehensive social term used to refer to the numerous aspects of religious activity, dedication and beliefs.
Rationalisation- This is when actions become based on efficiency and calculation rather than from the motivations derived from morality, emotion, custom or religion.
Disenchantment- The process of whereby magical and religious ways of thought are replaced by rational mode of thought.
Structural Differentiation- This refers to the separate institutions carrying out functions that were once performed by single institutions in society. (Parsons)
Cultural Defence- This is when religion provides a focal point for the defence of national, ethical or local group identity in a struggle against external factors. (Bruce)
Cultural Transition- This is when religion provides support and a sense of community for ethnic groups such as migrants moving to a different country entering a different culture. (Bruce) (Herzberg’s USA Study)
Spiritual Revolution- Postmodern society has caused a revolution where traditional religion is giving away to many new types of forms. Many are New Age Beliefs emphasizing self development.
Holistic Milieu- Refers to people who seek self spirituality and take part in New Age Movements unlike the congregational domain. (Heelas and Woodhead)
Secularisation from Within- This is the ideology that religion becomes psychologised or turned into a form of therapy. Now, purpose of religion is for personal improvement in the world. (Bruce)
Believing Without Belonging- This is agreeing to religious beliefs, origins and ways but not attending religious institutions. Reginald Bibby’s Canadian Survey explains that 80% of Canadians state they have religious beliefs but only 25% actually attending Church on a regular basis, (Davie) (Reginald Bibby)
Vicarious Religion- Grace Davie explains that a small number of professional clergy practice religion on behalf of wider society when there is low attendance in religious institutions. (Davie)
Spiritual Shopping- Due to cultural amnesia, we are now customers to religion due to greater consumerism in society. We now use religion when we pay for rites of passage. (Leger)
Metanarratives- This is the idea that we form pieces of our own reality taken from different parts of society forming our own theory of the world. (Lyotard)
Cultural Amnesia- This is the loss of collective memory passed down from generation to generation. This postmodern generation has lost traditional religion because parents don’t teach their children about it. (Leger)
Religious Consumerism- Where people become spiritual shoppers. Religion becomes individualised and we use it for marriage, baptism and rites of passage spending a lot of money for such things. (Leger)
Re-enchantment- This is the growth of unconventional beliefs, practices and spirituality criticizing the secularisation theory. (Lyon)
Religious Market Theory- This is the Eurocentric focus on the decline in religion where people have become more customers to religion using it for rites of passage. (Stark and Bainbridge)
Supply Led Religion- Explains that religious demand is based on offer and to the extent to which people respond to their needs which is likely to be related to such offers. (Stark and Bainbridge)
Existential Security- This is a term referring to religion being more important in societies that are less stable and secure. Norris and Ingleheart claim that religious belief is stronger and more traditional in poorer societies. (Norris and Ingleheart)
Hindu Ultra-Nationalism- Based on the consensus that people in India believe they have the most superior culture due to their main national religion of Hinduism. (Nanda)
Pentecostalism- A global religion that achieved it’s mainstream due to being able to plug into and incorporate local beliefs. It uses symbolism drawn from local cultures and existing beliefs. For example, they attack cults claiming they are working for the devil and exorcisms need to be performed on these cults to help them. (Lehmann)
Fundamentalism- This refers to the belief that we need to return to a time when religion was more important and gave moral solutions to problems. (Gidden’s)
Cosmopolitanism- This refers to embracing modernity. It’s tolerant of other views of others open to new ideas and constantly reflecting and modifying beliefs over time, keeping them up to date. (Gidden’s)
Monotheism- This refers to when a religion has only 1 God. Examples are Christianity, Islam and Judaism. (Bruce)
Polytheistic- This term refers to when a religion can have more than 1 God. An example would be Hinduism. (Bruce)
Clash of Civilisations- This theory suggests that religion and different cultures is the major cause of conflict between different nations. For example, 9/11 attacks in 2001. (Huntington)
Church- In Troelch’s definition of types of religion organisations, this refers to large organisations with a bureaucratic hierarchy claiming a monopoly of the truth. Churches are inclusive having millions of members. They believe they are the true religion but are relatively tolerant of other beliefs. (Troelsch)
Sects- These are smaller exclusive groups that are hostile to wider society. They expect a high level of commitment and tend to be led by a charismatic leader. Members tend to be drawn from the poor, oppressed and those dis-privileged in society. (Troelsch)
Denomination- These are religious organisations that are half way between churches and sects but membership is less exclusive. They impose some minor restrictions such as no alcohol. (Niebuhr)
Cult- The least organised religious organisation that sees its members more like trainees or customers. They are led by practitioners or therapists who claim special knowledge. (Niebuhr)
New Religious Movements- These are recent religious groups that have arisen with their own beliefs. Wallis explains there are 3 types of NRM’s, World Accommodating, World Rejecting and World Affirming. Since the 1960’s, there have been over 800 New Religious Movements and over half a million members. (Wallis)
World Rejecting- These new religious movements reject the world and seek radical change. They often have more conservative moral codes and are likely to live in communities together which can resort to brainwashing. (Wallis)
World Accommodating- These are breakaways from mainstream religions and they neither accept nor reject the world. They seek to restore the spiritual purity of religion such as Neo Pentecostalism.
World Affirming- These organisations accept the world seeking to improve it. Most of them are cults which grant their followers access to supernatural powers.
Marginality- Lacking some of the traits in society due to dis-privillege. (Weber)
Relative Deprivation- The subjective sense of being deprived so people who are in fact privileged can feel dis-privileged such as the middle class who may be feel spirituality deprived so they turn to sects for a sense of community. (Wallis) (Weber)
Sectarian Cycle- This is Stark and Stanbridge’s concept believing sects have a cycle which will eventually lead to them disbanding. 1st stage is Schism due to conflict between the privileged and dis-privileged, 2nd stage is initial fervour where a charismatic leader will rise up, 3rd stage is Denominationalism where the Protestant Ethic effect kicks in and initial fervour begins to fade, 4th stage establishment where sects become more world-accepting and 5th stage is further schism where members leave and find other sects. (Stark and Stanbridge.)
Established Sects- These are sects that manage to keep their institutions stable in terms of participation, attendance and their commitments to the faith. Wilson distinguishes between 2 types of established sects, Conversionists and Adventists. (Wilson)
New Age Movements- These are movements that cover a range of beliefs focusing on self spirituality that have become widespread since the 1980’s. They are extremely diverse including the belief in UFO’s, Astrology, Yoga and Meditation. (Wilson)
Open Belief Systems- These beliefs are open to scrutiny, criticism and can be verified through constant re-testing. An example would be science which is open to falsification. (Popper)
Closed Belief Systems- These beliefs are not open to criticism. Unlike science, they make claims that cannot be successfully overturned. Fundamentalist beliefs often have get out phrases when they are threatened. (Horton)
Verificationism- The opposite of falsificationism where theorists set out to find evidence that would prove a theory or support an existing theory. (Popper)
Falsificationism- The opposite of verificationism where theorists set out to find anomalies or evidence that would otherwise prove their theory wrong. Popper refers to this as the fallacy of induction. (Popper)
CUDOS Norms- Science thrives as a major social institution due to receiving support from other major institutions and values. This occurred during the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century as science became an important factor for society. Today thanks to science, there have been a lot of technological advances that have changed society’s functions. Merton identifies 4 CUDOS norms: (Merton)
<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Communism- That scientific knowledge is not private property and must be shared with everyone otherwise knowledge cannot grow.
<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Universalism- The truth or falsity of scientific knowledge then becomes judged by universal and objective criteria such as testing.
<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Disinterestedness- This means being committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake. Scientists have to publish their findings making it difficult to practice fraud.
Self Sustaining Beliefs- These are belief systems that have 3 devices that keep it sustained when there is contradictory evidence.
<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Circularity- Idea explained in terms from another idea.
<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Subsidiary Explanations- If something is found false, the religious institutions work around the answer to the problem.
<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Denials of legitimacy to Rivals- They reject other views and belief systems by refusing to grant any legitimisations to their basic assumptions. (E.g creationism completely rejects the idea of evolutionism.)
Utopia- The idea of the perfect world. (Blotch)
Dual Character- Religion has positive and negative influences on social change. On the positive side for the working class it can inspire protest and rebellion after charismatic leaders are given images of a utopia seeing what needs to be changed. (Blotch)
Free- Floating Intelligentsia- This is the detachment of intellectuals from social groups which would mean that a fair society would occur because intellectuals represent strong interests in particular groups. (Mannheim)
Magic- This is control over the supernatural or it can involve illusions or tricks.
Supernatural- Something beyond nature which cannot be scientifically explained or explained by the laws of nature.
Ritual- These are physical, mental or social practices of religion such as singing, praying and meditation.
Modernity- This began with the industrial revolution where there was a rapid social change. Although society remains fairly predictable, technological advancement, secularisation and a decline in tradition has occurred.
Postmodernity- Society has moved into a late modern stage where culture is now fragmented, diverse, and unstable and ever changing. (Davie) (Leger) (Lyotard)
Charismatic Leader – This is a person who organises a religious movement giving its members inspiration and representing their ideals. (Troelsch) (Wallis)
Theodicy of Disprivilege- Max Weber’s term that religious explanations state that marginality is justified. For example, it could be as a test of faith by religion. Sects offer a sense of community to those who are disprivileged making them more attractive to the oppressed who can understand those facing the same hardships. (Weber)
Ecumenicalism- Of or related to worldwide Christian Church concerned with establishing or promoting unity among different churches or religions.
Televangelism- This is trying to convert people to a faith or religion through television. (Hadden and Shupe)
Theocracy- This is when a state is dominated by religious doctrine influencing the laws and social policies.
Social Construction- A term referring to created or made by society.
Terms Regarding Science
Paradigm- This is a set of norms or kind of culture that tells the scientists how to think and behave. They accept the paradigm uncritically as a result of socialisation. Conforming to the paradigm would resort to publication of research and career success. Paradigms are also incommensurable. (Kuhn)
Anomaly- This is something or evidence that would prove an existing theory wrong or not support its correction. (Kuhn)
Normal Science- This refers to the engagement in puzzle solving. The paradigm defines the questions and in sometimes broad terms the answer. Scientists have to fill in their work in detail to work out the closest solution rather like completing a jigsaw puzzle. (Kuhn)
Paradigm Shift- Refers to when too many anomalies are found in the theory, (too much evidence that disproves the theory) it may change slightly or to another new theory.
Pre-paradigmatic- Kuhn’s definition and argument that refers to sociology being too divided into competing perspectives or schools of thought that prevents it from being a science.
Causation- This is when one factor or thing causes another.
Correlation- This is when 2 things happen at the same time.
Verificationism- The opposite of falsificationism where theorists set out to find evidence that would prove a theory or support an existing theory.
Falsificationism- The opposite of verificationism where theorists set out to find anomalies or evidence that would otherwise prove their theory wrong. Popper refers to this as the “fallacy of induction.”(Popper)
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