RELIGIOSITY AND SOCIAL GROUPS

Miller and Hoffman (Gender and Religiosity) - They found that more women attend church than men. From their statistics in England 2005, they found 1.8 million women attend where as a lower 1.36 million men attend the institutions. Women express a greater interest in religion having stronger commitments. Bruce states there are 2x more women in sects than men. They also explain they could be more likely to attend because they are usually the ones who are likely to do part time work in family’s so they have more free time and motivation to go.

Glock and Stanbridge- They explain that women attend more because they are often the ones who are deprived more.

Greeley (Socialisation and Gender Role) – They found that women participate more in religious institutions because they are more attracted to church as a source of identity. They argue that taking care of other family members increases women’s religiosity because it involves responsibility for their ultimate welfare as well as their everyday needs.

Brown (Women and New Age) – They argue that since the 1960’s women have begun to reject the traditional gender roles which religions like Christianity promoted and were closely connected due to practices. This is why recent trends have led to a dramatic decline in church going among women. From 1990 to 2005, there was a 16.4% drop in attendance

Modood (First and Second Generation Ethnic Religiosity) – Found that the second generation of even ethnic groups have few observancy in the importance of religion. However, the Policies Institute found that Muslims, Blacks and Hindus are more likely to see religion as more important than whites.

Bruce (Religion as an Ethnic Cultural Defence) – Bruce argues that religion in certain situations can offer support and a sense of cultural identity in an uncertain or hostile environment. This is good for coping with the negativities in society such as discrimination and racism. Blacks often join black led Churches due to feeling uneasy and not welcome.

Pryce (Cultural Transition in Bristol) – Explains that religion provides a means of easing the transition into a new culture by providing support and a sense of community. For example, Pentecostalism is a highly adaptive religion of the oppressed providing migrants with values appropriate to the new world which they found themselves in. Thus, Pentecostalism helped them adapt to British society.

RELIGION IN GLOBAL CONTEXT

Nanda (Hinduism and Consumerism)- Nanda explains that the secularisation theory is incorrect because in his studies of developing societies(2007) 30% of Indians said they had become more religious in a society that is technologically advancing and developing. According to the secularisation thesis, as society develops religion is declined. Nanda notes that it is fashionable to become religious in India as members are given a chance to express their wealth and success to the community. This is because the globalisation process made the middle class more prosperous. (Although not perfect, 93% of Indians agree their culture is the most superior in the world, Hindu Ultra Nationalism.)

Redding (Capitalism in East Asia)- Redding explains that in countries of East Asia such as South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan have become successfully industrialised playing an important role for the global economy. This is because the process of Confucianism took place in these countries, an ethical and philosophical belief system focusing on hard work, self discipline and commitment to education similar to the processes of Calvinism. Thus the effect of this belief and value system leads to the productivity of capital.

Berger (Pentecostalism in Latin America) - Berger explains that Pentecostalism in Latin America acts as a functional equivalent to Weber’s ideology of the Protestant Ethic. In Latin America the Pentecostals embrace a work ethic and lifestyle similar to that of Calvinism. This is because they demand an ascetic lifestyle emphasizing personal discipline, hard work, and abstinence from alcohol and encouraging members to be upwardly mobile. Therefore it has a strong affinity with modern capitalism.

Giddens (Fundamentalism and Cosmopolitanism) - Giddens distinguishes between fundamentalism and cosmopolitanism.

The term fundamentalism is a relatively new one. Fundamentalists seek to return to a time when religion placed a massive importance on lifestyle. They believe their way is the only way; they are very traditional and avoid contact with those who think differently.

Cosmopolitanism however is a way of thinking that embraces modernity keeping with today’s globalising world. It’s open to new ideas, self spirituality and personal meaning.

Bauman (Fundamentalism as a response to Postmodernity) – Bauman goes further to explain that fundamentalism is a response to Postmodernity. He explains that postmodernity brings out freedom of choice, uncertainty and heightened awareness of risk which undermines old certainties about traditional life. Thus many people embrace new freedom of individualism where as some stay attracted to fundamentalism because of its absolute truth and certainty in the world.

Bruce (Monotheism and Fundamentalism) – Bruce explains that today’s globalising world threatens fundamentalist beliefs who have developed rigid rules about what to believe and how to behave. He regards fundamentalism as being confined to monotheistic religions such as Christianity. This is because the rules are written from the word of one God according to such religious instruments like the Bible and the Quran. By contrast he explains polytheistic religions as lacking in a single all powerful deity which opens more of a scope for different interpretations where none has an overriding claim to absolute truth.

Bruce (Religion as a Cultural Defence) – Bruce explains that a function religion performs is cultural defence. He explains that religion symbolises society’s collective identity and defends the community from threat from external factors by often having prominent roles in politics.

For example, when Poland was under communist rule imposed outside the Soviet Union, the Catholic Church was suppressed at the time but many of the Polish continued to embody national identity because the church served as a rallying point for Soviet Union against their oppositions.

Huntington (Clash of Civilisations) – Huntington pointed out that religion has become the centre of global conflicts. For example, the 9/11 attacks in 2001 from terrorists and religious extremists of Islam. He also argues that it creates global cohesions with civilisations and can cause conflict within them. This has occurred throughout history where people feel they have to defend their beliefs resorting to immoral means. Huntington now believes the west is under threat from Islamic beliefs which urges them to reassert their Christian identity.

· NANDA(HINDUISM AND CONSUMERISM)

· REDDING(CAPITALISM IN EAST ASIA)

· BERGER(PENTACOSTALISM IN LATIN AMERICA)

· GIDDENS(FUNDAMENTALISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM)

· BAUMAN(FUNDAMENTALISM RESPONDS TO POSTMODERNITY)

· BRUCE( MONOTHIEMS AND FUNDAMENTALISM)

· BRUCE(CULTURAL DEFENCE)

· HUNTINGTON(CLASH OF CIVILISATIONS)

SCIENCE AND IDEOLOGY

(Open Belief Systems) Popper- Karl Popper a philosophical scientist explains that what makes science unique is that it is an open belief system open to scrutiny, criticism and testing by others.

Science is also governed by the principle of falsificationism, thus scientists set out to try and falsify and prove existing theories wrong. He refers to this as fallacy of induction. To illustrate, he uses an example of a large number of swans being observed in his studies. We might make a generalisation that all swans are white but a single observation of a black swan would destroy this theory.

(CUDOS Norms) Merton – Merton explains that science thrives as a major social institution because it has 4 norms that govern it. These norms make scientists behave in a certain way to serve the goal of increasing scientific knowledge. The term CUDOS is short for the initial letters:

· Communism- Where scientific knowledge is not private property. It must be shared with the scientific community by publishing their findings otherwise science won’t grow.

· Universalism- When the truth or falsity of scientific knowledge is judged by universal objective criteria such as testing and not chosen by scientists who produce it.

· Disinterestedness- When it is difficult to discover knowledge for its own sake as findings need to be published making it harder for scientists to practice fraud.

· Organised Scepticism- When knowledge is open to questioning and objective criticism because no knowledge claim is sacred.

(Belief Systems) Horton – Horton distinguishes between open and closed belief systems. He explains that science is an open belief system because it’s open to criticism and can be disproved by testing. However most other belief systems like fundamentalist religions are closed belief systems. This is because knowledge claims are made that cannot be overturned. Because when they are threatened, they often use get out clauses to get around the problem.

(Witchcraft) Pritchard – Pritchard explains that like westerners, a social group known as the Azande believe natural events have natural causes. However, unlike most westerners the Azande don’t believe in coincidence or chance. For example a westerner would believe snake bit a person because they were walking on the grass and probably accidentally stepped on it. However the Azande would believe that this is due to witchcraft because a jealous neighbour cast a spell on them so misfortune would happen. This can resort to accusations being made against a suspected subject and can be resolved by the prince of the tribe informing members to perform rituals that resolve the problem. Pritchard argues that this belief system performs useful social functions that clear the air from disruption. Thus, it is an example of a closed belief system because it is highly resistant to challenges.

(Self Sustaining Belief Systems) Polanyi– Polanyi explains that belief systems have 3 main devices that help them sustain themselves when there is contradictory evidence:

· Circularity- The fact that each idea is explain in terms of another idea within the belief system.

· Subsidiary Explanations- When something is proven false like an oracle that fails there is always some sort of explanation rather than the falsity of the belief itself.

· Denial of Legitimacy to Rivals- Belief systems tend to reject worldviews because they refuse to grant legitimacy to some of their assumptions. (E.g. creationism completely rejects evolutionism.)

(Scientific Paradigms) Kuhn– Thomas Kuhn explains that science can be like a closed system. This is because it is based on a set of shared assumptions called the paradigm. The paradigm tells scientists what reality is really like, what methods to use in research and what counts as evidence that supports their answers. Challenging the paradigm can lead to ridicule or out of the profession. For example, Veliskovsky came up with a new theory that challenged some of the most fundamental studies of science in which he was ridiculed.

When scientists conform to the paradigm, they are puzzle-solving. Thus, those that do so are rewarded with published works and professorship.

(Little Green Men) Woolgar– He found that scientists discover what their evidence means before they can apply to theories or explanations. Thus, they have to persuade others to accept their information. For example, during the case of the discovery of “Pulsar”. This was where researchers at Cambridge where able to find patterns shown in printouts from a telescope. However, not being successful to the science community led to the signals being later figured as a type of star known as hitherto unknown to science. Woolgar argues that scientific fact is a social construction not necessarily a real thing out there.

(End of Metanarratives) Lyotard– Lyotard explains that science falsely claims to offer truth about how the world works. To contrast, he explains there are a number of metanarratives within sociology which claim to possess truth about how the world works. Examples of metanarratives include functionalism, Marxism, Religion. To Lyotard, science is just another discourse and way of thinking used to dominate people.

(Hegemony as Belief System) Gramsci– Gramsci found that people subconsciously accept ruling class ideas because they believe its how things are meant to be or work. These ideas are promoted in science and religion to keep the working class oppressed. Thus, hegemony becomes like a sort of belief system.

(Free-Floating Intelligentsia) Mannheim– Mannheim describes that belief systems are partial one sided views occurring because intellectuals attach themselves to particular classes or social groups that represent their particular interests not society as a whole. To Mannheim, removing intellectuals from society would remove the source of conflicting interests and create and equal society. Mannheim distinguishes between 2 types of belief systems or world views intellectuals attach themselves to.

· Ideological Thought- Justifying things the way they are to maintain status quo reflecting interests of capitalist class.

· Utopian Thought- Justifies social change reflecting the interests of the underprivileged offering a vision of how society could be organised differently.

(Feminist Ideology) Marks– Marks explains that ideologies from science justify inequality. He found that in the 19^th century doctors, scientists and educationalists use to express view that educating females would disqualify them from the vocation in the home and nurturing of the next generation. Thus science is used to make people believe that higher education for women would render them unable to suckle infants.

WHAT TO REMEMBER

· KARL POPPER- Science an open belief system governed by principle of falsificationism. White and Black Swans.(Fallacy of Induction)

· MERTION CUDOS Norms- Science thrives as a major social institution because it has 4 norms that govern it. Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, Organised Scepticism.

· HORTON- Science is an open belief system because it’s open to criticism and can be disproved by testing. However, fundamentalist religions are open belief systems because knowledge claims are made that can’t be overturned. (Get out clauses) (Close and Open Belief Systems)

· PRITCHARD- Witchcraft among Azande, not believes in coincidence, jealous neighbour, snake biting, Prince, Performs social functions that clear the air.

· POLYANI (SELF SUSTAINING BELIEFS) - Belief systems have 3 main devices that help them sustain themselves where there is contradictory evidence. Circularity, Subsidiary Explanations, Denial of legitimacy to Rivals. (Creationism rejects evolutionism.

· THOMAS KUHN- Scientific Paradigms explain science can be like a close system. Based on a set of shared assumptions called paradigm. Paradigm tells scientists how to behave, methods to use and what counts as evidence. Those that conform to it are rewarded. (Veliskovsky) (Normal Science- Puzzle Solving)

· WOOLGAR- Argues scientific fact is a social construction, not necessarily a real thing. Because need to discover what evidence means. (Study of Pulsar patterns (telescope), Hithero.)

· LYOTARD- Death of Metanarratives, Science falsely claims truth about how world works. E.g. Religion is also a metanarrative claiming to possess truth about world. Thus science is just another discourse and way of thinking.

· GRAMSCI- Hegemony is like a belief system. People accept and believe in dominant ideas in society promoted by ruling class in science and religion to keep w/c oppressed. (Neo Marxist)

· MANNHIEM- Free floating Intelligentsia. Belief systems partially one sided because intellectuals attach themselves to particular social group or classes. They represent particular interests of these groups not society as a whole. 2 types of worldview, Utopian thought- for social change. Ideological Thought- To preserve. (Neo Marxist)

MARKS- Feminist Ideology. Explain Ideologies from science justify inequality and patriarchy. 19^th century, doctors, scientists and educationalists use to express that educating females would disqualify them from the vocation in how and of nurturing next generation. Higher education would unable suckling infants.

SECULARISATION

This is the decline in religion where religious attendance, practices and beliefs have become less important and more minor in society. Crocket estimates that 40% of the adult population attended religious institutions on a Sunday in 1851 according to census records. However this figure has declined leading some sociologists to claim that the 19^th century was the golden age of religiosity. There is now:

· A decline in proportion of population going to church

· Fewer baptisms and church weddings

· An increase in the average age of church goers

· Greater Religious diversity(NAMS, Sects)

· A decline in the numbers holding traditional Christian beliefs.

(Church Attendance) Wilson- Bryan Wilson defines secularisation as “the process where religious activity, beliefs and practices lose their social significance.” Church going in England and Wales has fallen from 40% in the mid-19^th century to around 10-15% by the 1960’s. Thus with these statistics in hand, Wilson concludes that Britain has become a secular society.

(Religious Institutions Today)- The state has taken over many of the functions religion use to perform for society. This is because of factors such as rationalisation and disenchantment. For example, the church use to perform educational functions, but now most of these services are provided by the state which has separated itself from religion. Religious institutions are now used more for rites of passage such as weddings, baptisms and christenings which people pay for as we have become spiritual shoppers.

(Religious Beliefs) Gil et al- Found that more people claim to hold Christian beliefs than actually participate in going to church. They agree with the postmodernist Davie’s theory of believing without belonging. They found that religious belief and attendance is in decline. When they asked people “Would you describe yourself as being part of any religion or denomination?” In 1950 23% replied no however by 1996 this had increased to 43%.

(Rationalisation and Disenchantment) Weber- Weber’s theory explains that rational ways of thinking began to replace religious ways of thinking. He argues that western society had undergone the process of rationalisation in recent centuries. Rationalisation means when the actions in society become based on calculation and efficiency rather than from morals or religion.

The Protestant Reformation is believed to have brought out a new world view of disenchantment. Thus, getting rid of the magical and religious ways of thinking in the past leading to a rational mode of thought that allowed science to thrive for technological advancement. This has given humans more power to control nature which undermines religious world view.

(Structural Differentiation) Parsons- Talcott Parson’s found that there are now many separate institutions that have been developed to carry out specialised functions that were once previously carried out by a single institution. This happened to religion, it is now a smaller and more specialised institution being used for such services like rites of passage. The functions have been transferred to the state and other institutions.

(Religious Diversity) Berger- Berger found another cause of secularisation is religious diversity where one religious organisation no longer claims a monopoly of the truth like the Catholic Church did in the Middle Ages.

This all changed with the Protestant reformation when Protestant Churches came to place and sects broke away from the Catholic Church. This also allowed the growth of a variety of new religious organisations.

(Cultural Defence/Transition) Bruce- Argues that religion can also provide a focal point for the defence of local, ethnic or national group identity in a struggle against external factors. When Polish culture was threatened by the Soviet Union, they went to their Catholic Churches which acted as a rallying point for protecting their culture.

Also argues that religion can provide support and a sense of community for ethnic groups such as migrants to a different country and culture.

(Kendal Project) Heelas and Woodhead- They explained that New Age Movements had come to place because people have become more individualised. The holistic milieus are focused on self-spirituality and personal experience with their beliefs rather than the traditional community participation in religious institutions. This resorted to the decline of obedience to traditional religious demand. Now Evangelical Churches are more successful than traditional churches. Heelas and Woodhead distinguished between 2 groups.

^· The Congregational Domain- Favouring traditional ways.

^· The Holistic Milieu- Seeking self spirituality and personal experience.

(Secularisation in America) Bruce- Also argues that America is becoming more secular too. There is a decline in attendance even though statistics suggest otherwise. Opinion polls suggest attendance has been stable around 40% since 1940. However Hadaway’s research team visited churches in Ashtabula County to find these statistics did not match the churches. If 40% of all Americans attended Church then the churches would be full but they were not. These statistics may apply to the bible belt in America but not it as a nation.

WHAT TO REMEMBER

(Church Attendance) Wilson- Dropped, define secularisation, 40% mid 19^th century Sunday to 10-15% 1960’s.

(Religious Beliefs) Gil et al- More people claim to hold religious beliefs than participate. Would you as Church or Denomination. No 1950, 23%, by 1996 43%.

(Rationalisation and Disenchantment) Bruce- Rational ways replace religious ways of thinking. Disenchantment, get rid of magical and move to a rational mode of thought.

(Structural Differentiation) Parsons- Many new specialised institutions developed to carry out functions which previously were performed by a dominant single institution. This happened to religion which is now a smaller and more specialised institution.

(Religious Diversity) Berger- No single religious organisation claims monopoly of truth like Catholic Church in middle ages. Now Sects have come, NRM’s and NAM’s.

(Cultural Defence/Transition) Bruce- Focal point for defence of ethnic, national and group identity. E.g Poland. When religion provides support and community for ethnic groups and migrants to a different country and culture. E.g African Caribbean Pentacostals.

Heelas and Woodhead- Distinguishes between 2 groups that intertwined with secularisation process. Congregational domain, holistic milieu.

(Secularisation in America) Bruce- America is more secular. Opinion poll 40% attendances. However Hadaway’s research team disprove them because churches should otherwise be full. Attendance gap must have widened but is being masked to protect norms.

POSTMODERNIST VIEWS

Many sociologists reject the secularisation thesis of religion declining in modern society. Instead, they examine and explain that religion is rather changing instead of declining. This is because changes in religion are the result of changes in society such as greater individualism, consumerism and a shift from modern to post-modern society.

Davie (Vicarious Religion, Believing without Belonging) - Grace Davie argued against secularization. She believed that religion is not declining but simply taking a more privatised form. People no longer attend church because they feel they have to or that it is respectful to do so. She accepts that church attendance has declined but it is a matter of personal choice rather than the obligation it use to be.

She notes a trend towards vicarious religion where a small number of professional clergy practice religion on behalf of the rest of society. This pattern is typical in Britain and Northern Europe. For example, even though there are low levels of attendance, there are still a large proportion of people using churches for rites of passage- which are rituals that mark a change of status such as weddings, baptisms and funerals.

Another example is Reginald Bibby’s Canadian survey which found that only 25% of them attended church on a regular basis. However 80% agreed that they had religious beliefs.

(Davie) (Bibby) (Canadian Survey)

Davie is however criticized by Voas and Crocket who argue that there isn’t more believing than belonging. British Social Attitude Survey’s from 1983-2000 show that both church attendance and a belief in God are declining. (Voas and Crocket)

Leger (Spiritual Shopping)- She pointed out how in our postmodern society, we are spiritually shopping. This means we are consumers of religion where we pick and mix our own hybrid versions of reality possibly from many different religions. This is also caused by cultural amnesia, the passing down of religious ways generation to generation. We are now able to construct our own spiritual identity or metanarrative of the world.

Lyotard (Death of Metanarratives)- He explained how the death of metanarratives has occurred in post-modern society. This means that people don’t believe everything they are thought from religions who claim to be able to explain everything. Instead they take pieces from many diverse religions and institutions to form their own beliefs.

Stark and Brainbridge(Religious Market Theory) - They explain that religious institutions are like companies selling goods in a market. They criticize the secularisation theory because the US is apparently still strong in religion. They argue that there was no golden age of religion in the past and you can’t predict the end point of religion where everyone will become an atheist. To them:

People are naturally religious because human needs are met.

human nature to seek rewards and avoid costs which is provided through religious ideologies.

Norris and Inglehart (Existential Security Theory) – They reject Stark and Bainbridges religious market theory. They claim religion is more important in society’s that are less stable and secure. Thus religious demand is at its greatest from low income families and poorer societies. The more affluent society’s no longer have to depend on religious institutions as much.

<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Poorer Societies- More likely religious because of the instability and insecurity in society.

<!--[if !supportLists]-->· <!--[endif]-->Richer Societies- More likely to be less religious because they are more stable and secure so religion is of less importance.

ORGANISATION AND MEMBERS

TYPES OF RELIGIOUS ORGANISATI

(Troelsch)Church and Sects

The sociologist Troelsch distinguished between 2 main types of organisations. This was the church and the sect. (Troelsch)

Churches were larger with a bureaucratic hierarchy rather than having one leader. They are mainstream claiming a monopoly of the truth and more passive to wider society. They were more applicable to the middle class. (Catholic Church)

However, sects were seen as small, exclusive groups. Unlike churches they are hostile to wider society and expect a high level of commitment. Members are usually drawn from the poor or oppressed and led by a Charismatic leader. (Jehovah’s Witnesses)

Churches and Sects both claim they are the only true or legitimate faith.

(Niebuhr)Denominations and Cults

The sociologist Neibuhr goes further to identify 2 more additions. These are denominations and cults. (Neibuhr)

Denominations are described like Methodism as lying midway between churches and sects. Thus it’s less exclusive as sects and doesn’t appeal as much to wider society. They do impose some minor restrictions such as forbidding alcohol but are not as demanding as sects.

Cults are the least organised. They are led by practitioners or therapists who claim special knowledge. These groups are tolerant of other religions and their beliefs. They do not demand a strong commitment from followers who are more like customers or trainees than a member. Most cults claim they try to improve life in this world.

Wallis identifies similarities and differences between religious organisations. This is by:

· How they see themselves, Churches and Sects claim they are the only true or legitimate faith.

· How they are seen by wider society, Wallis describes how Churches and Denominations are seen as respectable and legitimate by wider society. However Sects and Cults are seen as deviant. (Wallis)

From Cathedrals to Cults

The sociologist Bruce criticizes Troelsch’s idea of religious organisations does not fit today’s reality. This is because Troelsch’s idea of the Catholic Church applies more to the 16^th century than today because diverse religious groups and institutions have flourished all over. The Catholic Church has lost its monopoly so sects and cults have managed to spread making religious diversity the norm.

World Rejecting NRM’s

Similar to Troelsch’s idea of Sects, Wallis describes they vary greatly in size to a handful of members from 100’s to 100’s of thousands. They have several characteristics:

· They are clearly religious organisations with a notion of God.

· They are highly critical of the outside world seeking radical change.

· They often live in communities with fellow members which can lead them to become brainwashed by the group.

· They have conservative moral codes, for example about sex. (Wallis)

World Accomodating NRM’s

These are the breakaways from existing mainstream religions. They neither accept nor reject the world focusing on religious matters rather than political or worldly ones. They seek to restore the spirituality of religions, for example Neo Pentecostal religion which has a direct emphasis on personal experience with God through baptism. (Wallis)

World Affirming NRM’s

Usually are cults that have been described as psychologising religions. They are led by therapists who claim to offer additional and special knowledge about the world so followers can unlock spiritual or supernatural powers. They support achievement in society whether it would be by status or material wealth. (Scientology) (Wallis)

Example of Doomsday Cults

The Solar Temple- They are a secret society continuing the myth of the existence of the Nights Templar. Their beliefs are about preparing for the second coming of Jesus Christ referred to as their Solar God King who would unify all Christian Churches and Islam.

They are quite a radical group. One of their leaders Di Mambro ordered a murder on a fellow member’s son. He claimed his son was the anti-christ and had him stabbed repeatedly many times by other cultists. They have also been the cause of mass suicides and murders in places such as France and Switzerland.

DYNAMICS OF SECTS AND CULTS

DENOMINATION OR DEATH(Neibuhr)

Niebuhr argues that sects are world rejecting religions that have come into place because of schisms. This is splitting up from an established church because of disagreement with some of its religious doctrine. He argues that sects are usually short lived and they would probably die out. Three reasons for this are:

· The second generation- They will probably lack the commitment to carry on following the faith.

· The Protestant Ethic Effect- Sects practice asceticism which is hard work and saving. This tends to make them prosperous and up worldly mobile so it tempts them to compromise with the world. Thus they either leave or abandon the world rejecting beliefs.

· Death of charismatic leader- Many people will often leave sects upon the leaders death. A new leader may impose different views.

THE SECTARIAN CYCLE (Stark and Stanbridge)

Stark and Stanbridge see religious organisations as moving through a cycle.

· The 1^st stage is schism, because there is tension between the deprived and privileged members of the church.

· 2^nd stage is initial fervour where a charismatic leader will arise causing great tension between the sect’s beliefs and those of wider society.

· The 3^rd stage is denominalisationism in which case The Protestant ethic effect that makes the fervour disappear because the second generation lack commitment.

· 4^th Establishment, becoming more world accepting coming to terms with world.

· 5^th Further Schism.

ESTABLISHED SECTS (Wilson)

Wilson argues that not all sects would follow the patterns outlined such as the sectarian cycle or denomination or death. Whether or not they do so will depend on what the sects will do to be saved. He distinguishes between 2 types of sects:

· Conversionist Sects- They aim to convert a large number of people in society so they are likely to grow into larger and more formal denominations.

· Adventist Sects- This is sects who wait the second coming of Jesus Christ such as Jehovah’s Witnesses. To be saved they believe they must separate themselves from the corrupt world around them; this separation prevents them from compromising and becoming a denomination.

In summary, Wilson argues that some sects have survived over many generations such Pentecostalists, Mormons, Adventists and Quakers making them established sects. Contrary to Niebuhr’s predictions, their parents succeeded into giving their children high levels of commitment keeping them apart from the wider world. Wilson also argues that globalisation will also make it difficult for future sects to keep themselves separate from the outside world.

GROWTH OF A NEW AGE (Heelas)

Since the 1980’s, Heelas argues that beliefs and activities have become more widespread. Many of them are audience or client cults. Examples of categories of these religions and beliefs include Astrology, UFO’s, Yoga and Meditation. They are extremely diverse and have 2 common themes:

· Self Spirituality- Finding it away from tradition where religion is more focused on the individual than based on the community.

· Detraditionalisation-Rejecting spiritual authority from religious authority figures or sacred texts. Instead their values are with personal experience with spirit and religion.

Explanation of the Growth of New Religious Movements

Since the 1960’s, there has been rapid growth in the number of sects and cults and the number of followers belonging to them. For example there is an estimated of over 800 NRMs and over half a million people belonging to them. Sociologists have offered three main explanations for this:

· Marginality

· Relative Deprivation

· Social Change

(Weber) Marginality- As Troelsch notes sects tend to draw their members from the poor and oppressed. Max Weber explains that sects draw out members from groups who are marginal to society, that is they are disprivileged not receiving status or economic rewards. Weber points out that these religions offer a theodicy of disprivilege which is an explanation of their suffering usually pointed out as a test of faith or hold out the promise of rewards in the future for example. (Max Weber) (Theodicy of Disprivilege)

(Wallis) Relative Deprivation- Wallis argues that the middle class could be spiritually deprived due to being materially wealthier. This might make them believe and perceive themselves as lacking in moral values. Thus they turn to sects for a sense of community. For example, Christ claims in the Bible that “it is harder for a rich man to enter the Kingdom of Heaven than it is for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle.”

By contrast, the privileged need no compensators because they are also attracted to religions which are world accepting churches that express their status and bring further success in achieving earthly rewards. (Wallis)

(Wilson) Social Change- Wilson argues that periods of rapid social change in society can disrupt and undermine the established norms and values. It produces anomie or normlessness. Thus those who are the most affected by the disruption may turn to sects as a solution.

For example, the dislocation created by the industrial revolution in the late 18^th century led to the birth of Methodism in the early 19^th century. This is because this religion offered a sense of community, warmth and fellowship at a time it was needed. (Wilson)

THE GROWTH OF NRM’s(BRUCE)

World Rejecting NRM’s- Attract the young because social changes from 1960’s gave them more freedom allowing a counter culture to develop. It allowed for alternative ideas to develop and world rejecting NRM’s were attractive because they offered young people a more idealistic way of life. Bruce argues that a failure of counter culture to change the world led to a disillusioned youth turning to religion instead.

World Affirming NRM’s- Bruce argues the growth is due to a response to modernity. Work no longer provides a meaning or source of identity it did in the past. Before the Protestant Ethic gave work a religious meaning for some people but now it doesn’t because we are expected to achieve even though we may lack opportunities to do so.

FORCE FOR SOCIAL CHANGE

Conservative Beliefs

Conservative beliefs try to preserve things the way they are stabilising society and maintaining status quo. Thus it prevents social change because it upholds traditional beliefs about roles, moral views, institutions and customs. For example traditional religions like Catholicism forbid divorce, abortion and oppose homosexual marriage. Much of these beliefs in religions have changed over the years.

Most religions uphold traditional family values such as the patriarchal division of labour. For example, in the Church of England the belief that a man is the head of the family is embedded into traditional marriage ceremonies since 1602. The bride has to swear to love honour and obey. The groom only has to love and honour. However since 1966, the wife has been allowed to drop the vow to obey showing the changes that has taken place in religion.

Functionalists- They view religion as a conservative force functioning to maintain social stability and prevent society from disintegrating. For example it promotes social solidarity through value consensus; therefore individuals are stopped from pursuing their own selfish interests at the expense of others which could cause society to collapse.

Marxists- They see religion as a conservative ideology that prevents social change due to blinding people from the truth. This occurs because religion legitimates or disguises exploitation and inequality. Thus the ruling class’s stability and capitalist society is maintained because the working class are inflicted with false class consciousness.

Fredrich Engels describes how religion prevents change by disguising inequality. However it can also challenge the status quo and encourage social change. For example, religion sometimes preaches liberation from slavery and misery. Senior clergy usually support the status quo. However, lower ranks have often inspired, supported and organised popular protest. (Engels) (Martin Luther King)

Ernest Blotch explains how religion is a dual character, which is that it can have a positive or negative impact on social change. He describes how religion can give people images of a utopia, the perfect world. Thus people see or envision what needs to be changed and attempt to through political organisation and leadership. (Blotch) (M L King)

Feminists- They also see religion as a conservative force used as an ideology to legitimate patriarchal power and maintain women’s subordination in the family and wider society.

· Woodhead-Religious Feminism.

· Armstrong- Maintaining Marginality, causing oppression.

· Jean Holm- Positioning in Places of Worship.

Calvinism

Calvinism is a form of Protestantism founded by John Calvin in the 16^th Century. This was during the reformation of Protestantism helping to bring out a major social change.

Max Weber notes that before societies had capitalism in the sense of greed and wealth, it was often spent on luxury consumption. However it is now based on systematic, efficient, rational pursuit of profit for its own sake rather than for consumption. Weber calls this the spirit of capitalism. He notes that Calvinism wasn’t the cause of modern capitalism but only merely an influence as one of its causes. Calvinist beliefs included:

· Predestination- God had predetermined which souls would be saved referred to as the elect.

· Divine Transcendence- No mortal could claim to know Gods will. This would cause a salvation panic. People didn’t know if they were chosen to be saved.

· Asceticism- Refers to self discipline and self denial. For example monks who refrained from luxury, wearing simple clothes and avoiding excess to devote themselves to God.

· Idea of a vocation or calling- Weber refers to this as other worldly asceticism. Thus Calvinists worked long hours and practiced vigorous self discipline. As Ben Franklin puts it, “idleness is a sin”.

Confucianism

Confucianism is an ethical and philosophical system that took place in other worldly countries having an impact in religion. It is however believed to have lacked the drive Calvinism had to emerge the spirit of capitalism. Thus countries like, China and India didn’t have capitalism emerging there like it did in western countries like Britain.

Hinduism

For example, instead of developing countries through capitalism, religions like Hinduism directed its followers away from the concerns of the material world and more to the spiritual world.

Religion and Social Protest

Steve Bruce uses case studies in which he compares two examples of the role of religiously inspired protest movements in America which have tried to change society. These are the American Civil Rights movement and the New Christian Right. (Bruce)

(Bruce) American Civil Rights Movement- This movement occurred in the 1950’s and 60’s to obtain equality for Black Americans. Many of them protested because they were prevented from having the right to vote, using the same amenities as whites and being segregated from public places or institutions such as schools. (1955, Rosa Parks, an activist refused to sit at the back of the bus.)

Led by Martin Luther King, it was motivated through religion as religious institutions played an important role. They were used to reinforce social solidarity acting like a sanctuary in the face of oppression. The black clergy thus shamed the whites by making them change the law for their shared Christian values. It thus brought out shame to those in power who couldn’t practice the principle that all men and women were born equal. Bruce describes how religion in this context was used as an ideological resource:

· Took the moral high ground- Blacks pointed out the hypocrisy of the white clergy who preached loved thigh neighbour.

· Channelling Dissent- Religion provides channels to express political dissent. The funeral of Martin Luther King was a rallying point for the civil rights cause.

· Acting as an honest broker- This was because religious institutions such as Churches provide a context for negotiating change due to respect from both sides and often seen as standing above politics.

· Mobilising Public Opinion- Black Churches of the south successfully campaigned to get support across the whole of America.

(Bruce) The New Christian Right- This is a political and morally conservative Protestant fundamentalist movement. It has gained prominence since the 1960’s due to the liberation of American society. They aimed to take America back to God arguing against homosexuality and divorce. The largely favour traditional family and gender roles. However they found it difficult to communicate with the public for many reasons. For example The Moral Majority, a 1978 right wing pressure group was 15% of the population at most making it never the majority.

Bruce describes this The New Christian Right as a failed movement for change. Despite its enormous media, it did not achieve its aim in taking America back to God. Now days most Americans for example believe the church is separate from the state. Numerous surveys show that despite people not agreeing with homosexuality and divorce, people were willing to accept other people’s views.

Liberation Theology

This was a movement that emerged within the Catholic Church in Latin America during the end of the 1960’s. It had a strong commitment to the poor and opposition to military dictatorships. Thus it brought a major change of direction for the Catholic Church in Latin America.

For years Latin America had been an extremely conservative society encouraging fatalistic acceptance of poverty and supporting the wealthy. The factors that led to the emergence of Liberation Theology were:

· The growth of slums throughout Latin America.

· Human rights abuses such as false imprisonment, torture and death squads murdering political opponents in places such as Brazil and Argentina.

· The growing commitment to catholic priests who supported the poor due to violations of human rights. It would go against everything they believe in.

Liberation Theology set out to educate the poor about their situation. It helped them fight oppression under the protection of the church. During the 1970’s Catholic Priests were often the only authority figures that took the side of the oppressed when torture and murder squads were used to hold onto power. However in the 1980’s Pope John Paul II condemned liberation theology on the basis of it resembling Marxism.

The Marxists Maduro and Lowy see how liberation theology is an example of a religiously inspired social change even though many other Marxists disagree.

Religion and Hegemony(Gramsci)

· (Hegemony- This means dominated by the ruling class through ideology so they can maintain control over society.)

Sociologists like Gramsci found that the ruling class maintain control over the state without force but simply through ideology. He did studies on religion and hegemony. The term hegemony refers to the ideological domination or leadership of society. Thus the ideology for this concept is that hegemony is the cause of the prevention of social change.

Economic Factors on Social Change (Kautsky)

The Marxist Kautsky argued against Weber’s views. He didn’t believe religion was the main source of social change. To him, economic factors were the main source of social change. For example, since the decline in the industrial revolution, postmodern society has been more based on technology in Britian. Thus to Kautsky, this effects people more than religion as employment for workplaces has changed and more people are entering education.

Millenarian Movements

These movements take the name from the world millennium. It refers to the idea that Christ would come into the world for a second time and rule for a thousand years before the day of judgement and the end of the world.

Worsley- notes that such movements also believe there will be total and immediate transformation of the world through supernatural means. Thus many religious movements expect there would be a heaven on earth, life free from pain, suffering and imperfection.

These views are favourable to the oppressed who are more likely to join these religious movements. (Worsley)